Grains

Cereal grains are the fruit of plants belonging to the grass family (Gramineae). Ten thousand years ago, wheat underwent spontaneous mutations causing this grass to hang onto its seed rather than scatter it to the wind. Although this change was not in the interests of the wheat from the standpoint of its own reproduction, it enabled humans to store seed for the winter. The calorie density of grains prevented starvation and so played an important role in human history worldwide. In China, rice was domesticated about 6,500 years ago, and in the New World corn was domesticated about 3,500 years ago.

Until the past century, most grains were consumed as "whole" grains. In other words, the grain kernels were intact -not stripped of their vitamins, minerals, and fiber. Whole grains provide fiber, protein, complex carbohydrates, lignans, phytates, other phytochemicals, vitamins, and minerals. Fat-soluble vitamins are found in the germ of the grain, and B vitamins and phytochemicals are found in the husk or bran. Grain and grain products are also naturally low in fat.

Whole grains can be consumed plain as hot cereals, used in pilafs, added to baked goods, and eaten in dozens of other ways. Hundreds of products are made from grain. Two of the main ones -bread and pasta -are diet staples in nearly every culture on every continent, from couscous in North Africa to soba (buckwheat noodles) in Japan. Grains and grain products literally feed the world, providing most of the calories and much of the protein consumed by the world's population.

Basics

Grains are the seeds of plants. Although the grains eaten by humans belong to a wide range of botanical families, they have the same basic structure and contain these components, from which plants begin to grow:

• Bran -This is the outer layer of the grain seed. It's full of B vitamins, trace minerals, and, especially, fiber.
• Endosperm -Sometimes referred to as the kernel, the endosperm contains the majority of the material within the seed and is meant to nourish a seedling. The endosperm is where most of the protein, carbohydrates, and small amounts of vitamins are located. It is composed mainly of starch, and often it is the only part of the grain that is eaten.
• Germ -The germ is the part of the seed from which the new plant sprouts. As the embryo within the seed, it has the highest concentration of nutrients, including B vitamins, trace minerals, and some proteins. It also contains fat, which increases its perishability.

Grains are usually milled before they are used as food. Milling usually means that the bran and any husk surrounding the grain seed (along with the nutrients they contain) are removed. Then the seeds are ground in a process that converts the grain into flour or other products. The product's use and name often depend on how much of the bran is left. Wheat, for example, can be milled into whole-grain flours that contain all parts of the seed. Refined flours, which are used most often by Western nations, contain only the endosperm: the bran and germ are removed (along with much of the grain's nutrition).

Nearly any grain can be milled and made into products such as bread, cereal, or pasta-food staples worldwide-with varying degrees of success depending on the chemistry of the grain. History has taught us which grains work best and in what combinations.

Gluten, which is found in grain protein, gives bread its springy texture. It becomes stretchy and thickens when liquid is added to the flour and the combination is kneaded. The resulting gas from the fermentation of the carbohydrate in the flour is trapped by the dough, causing the gluten to stretch and, thus, the bread to rise. Because wheat and rye contain the highest quantities of gluten, flour made from these grains has proved best suited for making bread. Other grains, such as corn, have less gluten, and products made from them are more crumbly.

In most countries, the highest proportion of cultivated land is devoted to grains. Crops such as wheat, rice, corn, barley, oats, and millet remain critical components in the diets of people worldwide. Wheat is the most widely grown grain. But, because multiple crops of rice can be grown in a year in tropical areas, a nearly equal amount of rice and wheat are grown each year.

Nutrition

The mix of nutrients supplied by grains varies. But because grain seeds are composed mostly of starch, between 65 and 90 percent of the calories supplied by grains are carbohydrates. Between 8 percent and 15 percent of calories come from protein, and fat contributes the remainder of the calories. Because grains are plant-based proteins, they do not supply all of the amino acids (the building blocks of protein) that your body needs. However, grains also do not have the twin disadvantages of animal-based protein-saturated fat and cholesterol, both of which are linked to cardiovascular disease. Grains can be eaten in combination with other foods-such as legumes, small servings of meat or poultry, and dairy foods-to provide the complete balance of amino acids.

Important minerals found in whole grains are iron, phosphorus, magnesium, and zinc. Whole grains are also a source of B vitamins (niacin, thiamin, riboflavin) and antioxidants, such as vitamin E and selenium. Scientists are just beginning to explore the health role of substances called "phytochemicals," which are also found in whole grains.

Grains are rich in dietary fiber, both insoluble fiber (which helps bowel function and may reduce the risk of some kinds of cancer) and soluble fiber (which may have a role in lowering blood cholesterol levels).

The refining and processing of grains remove many of the nutrients grains naturally provide. The bran and the nutrients it contains are often removed during the milling process. Refined wheat flour has both the bran and the germ removed. Many grain products are enriched, meaning nutrients originally found in the grain are added back to the product during processing. But not all the nutrients are returned. Insoluble fiber is milled away when the bran is removed, and antioxidants usually are not added back into refined flours. Phytochemicals also may be missing in refined products.

Selection

Grains, even those that have been processed or lightly cooked, contain some of their natural oils. Over time, they may go rancid, which is why ensuring freshness when buying them is key. Look for grains that are in sealed packages. This protects them from air, moisture, and spoilage. Some may have freshness or "best if used by" dates to help ensure quality. If you are buying in bulk, check whether the store has a rapid turnover of that particular product. There may not be a great demand for bulgur in supermarkets, for example, and so the product may have been on the shelf for some time. In contrast, specialty food markets or those specializing in natural foods may have greater demand for the product, sell more of it, and therefore have a fresher product. Grains also should smell fresh and appear clean and free of debris.

Storage

Because grains may attract insects or may become moldy if they become moist, keep them in tightly closed, moisture-proof containers. Grains can be stored at room temperature, but they will remain fresh longer if stored in the refrigerator, where they will keep for several months. Most grains can be kept much longer if stored in the freezer. They do not need to be thawed before cooking. Cooked grain may be stored in the refrigerator for several days and then reheated.

Preparation

Whole grains are hard and dry. Thus, cooking involves not only heating them but also rehydrating them. For that reason, whole grains, with few exceptions, are cooked in liquid. Here's a traditional method for doing so:

• Bring water (or other liquid, such as a stock) to a boil. Many cooks use a ratio of two to three parts water to one part grain.
• Add grains and other seasonings.
• Cover mixture and reduce to a simmer.
• Simmer until most of the liquid is absorbed.
• Remove mixture from heat and drain excess liquid if necessary. Let sit for approximately 5 minutes, then fluff with a fork.

Cooking times vary depending on the kind of grain used, how it has been processed, and whether it has been pre-cooked (bulgur and kasha are often lightly cooked, then dried before they are sold in stores). Most cooks recommend cooking whole grains as you would pasta. Simply cook them until tender-a time that may range from 8 minutes for "instant" types of white rice to more than an hour for whole wheat or other unmilled grains.

Some grains that are particularly tough-such as wheat or rye-may be easier to cook if they are first soaked. Rinsing whole grains before cooking also is advised to remove debris or other residues.

Grains

AMARANTH
Amaranth was one of the main food sources for the Aztecs, who also used it in religious rituals. Cultivation ended almost completely after Spanish conquistadors made growing the plant a punishable offense. Today, both farmers and anyone interested in nutrition are showing increasing interest in the plant because it has more protein (15 percent to 18 percent of calories) than most other grains (8 to 15 percent of calories). Amaranth also contains more lysine and methionine, amino acids not provided by many common grains. Combined with other grains, it can provide a complete balance of amino acids. Amaranth is also a source of calcium and magnesium and contains more iron than almost any other grain.
The amaranth plant has long clusters of red flowers and grows to a height of 3 to 5 feet. It produces tiny seeds-up to 500,000 per plant. These seeds can be cooked and eaten as a grain or popped, sprouted, or ground into flour that has a strong, nutty flavor. Amaranth flour can range from a light yellow to dark violet, although most amaranth flour sold in stores is buff-colored.
Pasta can be made from amaranth flour, and amaranth oil is obtained from the plant's seeds. The green leaves and stalk of amaranth (also called pigweed) can be cooked and eaten. The leaves have a taste similar to that of spinach.

BARLEY
An annual plant that grows to a height of 1 to 4 feet, is hardy enough to withstand various growing conditions. For this reason, throughout history barley has been cultivated as a food crop and remains a staple in many nations, particularly in North Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Today, however, much of the barley produced in Western nations is fed to animals or used in the production of beer or distilled liquor. An enzyme in malt made from barley transforms the starch in beer or liquor mashes into sugars that alcohol-producing yeast can feed on and, therefore, ferment, a process that leads to the production of alcohol.
Given the health benefits of barley, its versatility, and its pleasing, lightly nutty taste, its banishment from many nations' kitchens is something to reconsider. Barley has a tough husk surrounding the grain seed which must be removed before it is edible. Barley is a source of soluble fiber, niacin, phosphorus, magnesium, and iron.
Barley grains are usually off-white, but the color may range from black to purple. How the grain is milled determines its nutritional content. Nutrients are most concentrated near the bran. Therefore, the more milling the barley undergoes, the less nutritious it is.
Types of barley sold in stores include:
Flaked barley - As its name suggests, barley flakes are grains that have been flattened. They resemble rolled oats.
Pot barley or Scotch barley - This type of barley is coarsely ground, but it loses most of its nutrients because almost the entire husk is removed.
Pearled barley - So-named because processed barley grains are the same size as pearls and ivory-colored, pearled barley is processed multiple times to scour or polish off the outer husk and the bran. The result is a barley that cooks much more quickly than other types of barley.
Hulled barley - Hulled barley has only the outer husk removed and still contains most of its bran. This makes it one of the most nutritious types of barley available.
Barley flour - Barley flour is simply barley grains ground very fine. It is darker than refined white flour and has a delicate, nutty flavor.
Supermarkets typically do not carry a wide variety of barley products, although pearled barley and prepared barley soups are easy to find. Health food stores or specialty food markets are more likely to carry less refined barley products.

BUCKWHEAT
From a botanical standpoint, buckwheat is a fruit and is in the same plant family as rhubarb. However, it is processed, prepared, and consumed like cereal grains such as wheat, rye, and oats.
Buckwheat products have a strong, nutlike flavor and include the following:
Buckwheat flours - As the name suggests, these are flours ground from the buckwheat seed. Supreme buckwheat flour is milled from whole buckwheat. Fancy buckwheat flour is milled from hulled buckwheat seeds. Buckwheat flour is commonly used to make pancakes, but it has a variety of other uses.
Farinetta - This is simply a product made from the bran of buckwheat seeds.
Buckwheat groats - Groats are hulled buckwheat kernels that have been crushed. Groats that are roasted are known as kasha, a name given to this product in Eastern European countries, where it has been a staple for centuries.
Nutritionally, buckwheat has unique characteristics. The protein quality of buckwheat is higher than that of wheat, soy, oats, or brown rice. For this reason, buckwheat is added to other cereal flours to improve nutritional quality, and it is often an ingredient in snack foods. Recent studies have linked various phytochemicals in buckwheat with potential health benefits. Rutin, a flavonoid found in buckwheat bran, is being studied for a possible role in managing blood cholesterol levels. Fagopyritols found in buckwheat may have a favorable effect on blood glucose levels in people with type 2 diabetes. Regular consumption of buckwheat also has been shown to lower blood pressure. However, further research is necessary to confirm these benefits.

CORN

FLAX

MILLET
Millet is the oldest of grains. And although it is often used in the United States as bird feed, millet is one of the main food sources for many developing nations.
There are many different species of millet, which is tiny, has an oblong-spherical shape, and ranges from pale yellow to reddish orange. Unlike most grains, which form ears, most varieties of millet form panicles, or berry-shaped heads. Millet berries are small and range from white, gray, or yellow to red or reddish brown. Common millet is grown worldwide and is used mainly for human consumption and animal feed. Foxtail millet is also grown in a variety of areas and is often used for birdseed or, in Russia, to make beer. Pearl millet is grown primarily in India.
Varieties that are more familiar to North Americans include sorghum and teff. Sorghum is widely grown in the American South and included there in regional cuisine. In the United States, sorghum molasses is used as syrup at the table and in baked goods. Teff was grown almost exclusively in Ethiopia until the past decade, when it was introduced in Western markets. Often thought of as a "famine food," teff is also grown and distributed by humanitarian agencies to relieve world hunger.
Millet has a strong, nutty flavor that may take some time to appreciate. Finely ground millet is used by Ethiopians to make fermented, spongy flat bread, by Indians to make crepe-like roti, and by the Macau in Africa to make beer. Nutritionally, millet is a good source of niacin, thiamin, phosphorus, and zinc and provides a fair amount of iron. Millet also is easy to digest.

OATS

QUINOA
Quinoa is hailed as the super grain of the future, but the accolades are a little misleading. Quinoa (a name supposedly derived from the Spanish word for "fantastic") is not really a grain. It is the fruit of a plant that belongs to the same botanical family as beets. The quinoa plant reaches a height of 3 to 10 feet and produces flat, pointed seeds that range from buff to russet to black.
Quinoa is relatively easy to cultivate and withstands poor soil conditions and altitude. Quinoa also packs a nutritional punch in its tiny seeds. Quinoa contains more protein than most grains and offers a more evenly balanced array of amino acids, the building blocks of protein. Quinoa is higher in minerals, such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, copper, zinc, and iron, than many grains.
Quinoa seeds can be cooked or ground into flour. Several types of pasta are made from quinoa flour. The leaves of the plant also are edible, and the seeds can be sprouted and eaten.

RICE
Most typically viewed as a side dish in Western nations, rice is the main entree when the rest of the world sits down to eat, providing up to half the calories in a typical daily diet in many Asian countries. Rice is also a staple in Africa.
Most of the world's rice is grown in Asia. The plant, which grows from 8 to 12 feet in height, can withstand a wide range of climate conditions, but it grows best in hot, humid areas. Branching stems from the plant produce flowers, which form the rice grains when fertilized. There are more than 8,000 varieties of rice.
Rice is commercially classified by its grain size:
Short-grain (round-grain) rice - Short-grain rice is round or oval and less than 1/5 inch long. It has a higher starch content that results in this rice being sticky after cooking. This kind of rice is also called pearl or glutenous rice (although there is no gluten in it).
Medium-grain rice - Medium-grain rice is up to 1/4 inch in length. It remains firm and light when cooked and retains more moisture than long-grain rice.
Long-grain rice - This rice is more than 1/4 inch in length. The grains are much longer than they are wide. They tend to remain separate when cooked and are drier than shorter-grain rice. Most rice grown in the United States is long-grain rice.
Each type of rice comes in both brown and white forms. Brown rice has only the tough, fibrous hull removed from the rice grain during processing. Because of this, it retains most of its nutrients, which include fiber (bran), potassium, phosphorus, and trace minerals. It also is chewier, has a stronger flavor, and takes longer to cook. Quick-cooking forms of brown rice, which have been partially cooked and then dried, are available.
White rice is the most popular form of rice. One reason is that the milling process, which removes the husk, bran, and germ, makes the rice cook more rapidly and extends its shelf life. Unfortunately, it's also the least nutritious form of rice. In Western nations, rice is enriched, meaning nutrients such as iron, niacin, riboflavin, and thiamin are returned to the rice before it is sold to consumers. Parboiled rice has been processed to preserve some of the nutrients during milling.
Instant rice is white rice that has been milled, cooked, and then dehydrated. It takes about 5 minutes to cook, and its nutritional content is generally equivalent to that of white rice because most instant rice is enriched.
Specialty types of rice include arborio rice, which is round white rice used in Italian dishes, and aromatic rices. Generally, aromatic rices-sometimes referred to as perfumed rices-are long-grain types of rice and have a distinct flavor typically compared to that of popcorn or nuts. Basmati rice has a nut-like aroma and a rich, buttery flavor. It is widely used in Indian and Pakistani cuisine. Jasmine rice is cultivated primarily in Southeast Asia and has a soft texture. Glutenous, or sweet, rice has a high starch content and is used in Asian cooking to thicken sauces and make dumplings and for some types of desserts. Rice also can be milled into fine, powdery flour, which can be used in baked goods.
Store rice in an airtight container. Brown rice, which naturally contains oil, keeps for about 6 months, but it is subject to rancidity. Its shelf life can be extended, however, by storing it in the refrigerator in an airtight container. White rice can keep for up to a year. Cooked rice can be stored in the refrigerator for several days, but it will last for 6 to 8 months when kept in the freezer.

RYE
Rye belongs to the same botanical family as wheat and barley. The plant is indigenous to Europe and Asia. The plant itself is often bushy at the base and stands 5 to 8 feet high.
Rye grows well in areas where the soil is too poor and the climate too cool for wheat. Rye grains have the same elongated shape as wheat grains. The color ranges from buff to gray. The husks are removed during milling, but usually much of the germ and bran remain, which enhances the nutritional value of rye products. The grains may be used whole, cracked, or rolled like oats, but they are generally ground into flour.
Rye flour comes in several different varieties. Light rye flour has most of the bran removed. Dark rye flour retains most of the bran and germ and is a source of magnesium, trace minerals, folic acid, thiamin, and niacin.
Dark rye flour is traditionally used to make the dark, strongly flavored German bread called pumpernickel. Rye also is used in many alcoholic beverages, including whiskey and some types of vodka.
Like most grain products, rye should be stored in airtight containers to retard spoilage.

WHEAT
Wheat is among the oldest of grain crops. Major wheat-producing areas include the United States, whose Great Plains are considered the "breadbasket of the world," Canada, China, western Europe, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Russia, India, Pakistan, and Australia.
Wheat is an annual plant that grows between 2 and 4 feet high, depending on the variety of wheat grown and growing conditions. The grains are contained in a bearded spike developed by the plant. Unlike many other grains, it can be difficult to cultivate. Nevertheless, it is easily one of the most common grains grown around the world. Only rice rivals it in production.
Most of the wheat grown in the world is eaten by humans-often in the form of bread. Wheat's high gluten content makes it particularly well adapted for this use. Because of this, wheat flour is the framework for almost all baked goods and pasta. Wheat also is used in the manufacture of beer and whiskey.
The three major types of wheat are:
Hard - Hard wheat is high in protein (10 to 14 percent). It is also high in gluten content, which gives the flour elasticity and makes it particularly suitable for yeast breads.
Soft - The low-protein (6 to 10 percent) flour is lower in gluten. It's often used to make "softer" baked goods, such as cakes.
Durum - This is the hardest wheat grown and is highest in gluten. Despite that, it is not used in baked goods. Instead, it is used to make semolina, the main ingredient of pasta.
Wheat also is classified according to the time of year it is planted. Spring wheat, as its name suggests, is sown in the spring. Winter wheat is grown in areas with more moderate winters and is sown in the late fall.
Literally thousands of products are made from wheat-flour, bread, and pasta are just the fundamental items. Whole-wheat products, however, are the most nutritious because they have not been milled as extensively as more refined products. Whole-wheat products include the following:
Cracked wheat - As the name implies, this is wheat seed that has been broken into small pieces. It can be finely or coarsely cracked.
Bulgur - A popular ingredient in many Middle East dishes, bulgur is a type of cracked wheat that has been steam-cooked and dried. Because of this, it does not require as much cooking time as other whole-wheat products. Bulgur is used for making tabbouleh (a well-known Middle East cuisine favorite), cereal, and pilaf. It is available in a variety of grinds, from fine to coarse.
Farina - A breakfast favorite, farina is perhaps better known as Cream of Wheat. It is made from the endosperm of the wheat seed, which is then milled very finely. Farina can be used in dumplings, main dishes, or desserts, particularly in Indian and Greek cuisine.
Wheat flakes - Also known as rolled wheat, these are wheat seeds that have been flattened. They look like rolled oats, although they are slightly larger and thicker. Although it might be easy to picture these as the main component of many cold breakfast cereals, wheat flakes are not the product used in these cereals.
Groats or wheat berries - These are other names for wheat seeds sold whole. Because they have undergone very little milling, these are among the most nutritious of wheat products.

WILD RICE
Not really a rice, although closely related to it genetically, wild rice is actually an aquatic grain. It is the seed of a marsh grass that grows in the northern Great Lakes area of the United States. It is known for its hazelnut-like flavor, dark-brown color, and chewy texture. American Indians, who once waged wars over areas where wild rice grew abundantly, have harvested it for centuries. These indigenous peoples called wild rice "mahnomen," meaning "precious gift from the gods."
First domesticated successfully in the 1950s after many attempts to mimic the moist, murky conditions where the wild rice-producing grass grows best, wild rice is now grown commercially in the Upper Midwest and in California. Most wild rice is eaten whole, but it also can be ground into flour.