Grains
Cereal grains are the fruit of plants belonging to the
grass family (Gramineae). Ten thousand years ago, wheat
underwent spontaneous mutations causing this grass to hang onto its seed rather than scatter it to the
wind. Although this change was not in the interests of the wheat from the standpoint of its own reproduction,
it enabled humans to store seed for the winter. The calorie density of grains prevented starvation and so
played an important role in human history worldwide. In China, rice was domesticated about
6,500 years ago, and in the New World corn was domesticated about 3,500 years ago.
Until the past century, most grains were consumed as "whole" grains. In
other words, the grain kernels were intact - not stripped of their vitamins, minerals, and
fiber. Whole grains provide fiber,
protein,
complex carbohydrates, lignans, phytates, other phytochemicals,
vitamins, and minerals. Fat-soluble vitamins are found in the germ
of the grain, and B vitamins and phytochemicals are found in the
husk or bran. Grain and grain products are also naturally low in fat.
Whole grains can be consumed plain as hot cereals, used in pilafs, added to
baked goods, and eaten in dozens of other ways. Hundreds of products are made
from grain. Two of the main ones - bread and pasta - are diet staples in nearly
every culture on every continent, from couscous in North Africa to soba
(buckwheat noodles) in Japan. Grains and grain products literally feed the
world, providing most of the calories and much of the protein consumed by the
world's population.
Basics
Grains are the seeds of plants. Although the grains eaten by humans belong to a wide range
of botanical families, they have the same
basic structure and contain these components, from which plants begin to grow:
- Bran -This is the outer layer of the grain seed. It's full of B vitamins, trace minerals, and, especially, fiber.
- Endosperm -Sometimes referred to as the kernel, the endosperm contains the
majority of the material within the seed and is meant to nourish a seedling. The endosperm is where most of the protein,
carbohydrates, and small amounts of vitamins are located. It is composed mainly of
starch, and often it is the only part of the grain that is eaten.
- Germ -The germ is the part of the seed from which the new plant sprouts. As
the embryo within the seed, it has the highest concentration of nutrients, including B
vitamins, trace minerals, and some proteins. It also contains fat, which increases its perishability.
Grains are usually milled before they are used as food. Milling usually means
that the bran and any husk surrounding the grain seed (along with the nutrients
they contain) are removed. Then the seeds are ground in a process that converts the
grain into flour or other products. The
product's use and name often depend on how much of the bran is left. Wheat, for
example, can be milled into whole-grain flours that contain all parts of the seed.
Refined flours, which are used most often by Western nations, contain only the
endosperm: the bran and germ are removed (along with much of the grain's nutrition).
Nearly any grain can be milled and made into products such as bread, cereal,
or pasta-food staples worldwide-with varying degrees of success depending on
the chemistry of the grain. History has taught us which grains work best and in what combinations.
Gluten, which is found in grain protein, gives bread its springy texture. It becomes
stretchy and thickens when liquid is added to the flour and the combination is kneaded.
The resulting gas from the fermentation of
the carbohydrate in the flour is trapped by
the dough, causing the gluten to stretch
and, thus, the bread to rise. Because wheat
and rye contain the highest quantities of
gluten, flour made from these grains has
proved best suited for making bread. Other
grains, such as corn, have less gluten, and
products made from them are more crumbly.
In most countries, the highest proportion of cultivated land is devoted to grains.
Crops such as wheat, rice, corn, barley, oats,
and millet remain critical components in
the diets of people worldwide. Wheat is the most widely grown grain. But, because
multiple crops of rice can be grown in a
year in tropical areas, a nearly equal amount
of rice and wheat are grown each year.
Nutrition
The mix of nutrients supplied by grains
varies. But because grain seeds are composed mostly of starch, between 65 and 90
percent of the calories supplied by grains
are carbohydrates. Between 8 percent and
15 percent of calories come from protein,
and fat contributes the remainder of the
calories. Because grains are plant-based
proteins, they do not supply all of the
amino acids (the building blocks of protein)
that your body needs. However, grains also
do not have the twin disadvantages of
animal-based protein-saturated fat and
cholesterol, both of which are linked to
cardiovascular disease. Grains can be eaten
in combination with other foods-such as
legumes, small servings of meat or poultry,
and dairy foods-to provide the complete balance of amino acids.
Important minerals found in whole grains
are iron,
phosphorus,
magnesium, and
zinc.
Whole grains are also a source of B vitamins
(niacin, thiamin,
riboflavin) and antioxidants,
such as vitamin E and
selenium. Scientists are just beginning to explore the health role
of substances called "phytochemicals,"
which are also found in whole grains.
Grains are rich in dietary fiber, both
insoluble fiber (which helps bowel function
and may reduce the risk of some kinds of
cancer) and soluble fiber (which may have
a role in lowering blood
cholesterol levels).
The refining and processing of grains
remove many of the nutrients grains naturally provide. The bran and the nutrients
it contains are often removed during the
milling process. Refined wheat flour has
both the bran and the germ removed.
Many grain products are enriched, meaning nutrients originally found in
the grain are added back to the product
during processing. But not all the nutrients
are returned. Insoluble fiber is milled away
when the bran is removed, and antioxidants
usually are not added back into refined
flours. Phytochemicals also may be missing in refined products.
Selection
Grains, even those that have been processed
or lightly cooked, contain some of their
natural oils. Over time, they may go rancid,
which is why ensuring freshness when
buying them is key. Look for grains that
are in sealed packages. This protects them
from air, moisture, and spoilage. Some may
have freshness or "best if used by" dates to
help ensure quality. If you are buying in bulk, check whether the store has a rapid
turnover of that particular product. There
may not be a great demand for bulgur in
supermarkets, for example, and so the product may have been on the shelf for some
time. In contrast, specialty food markets
or those specializing in natural foods may
have greater demand for the product, sell
more of it, and therefore have a fresher
product. Grains also should smell fresh
and appear clean and free of debris.
Storage
Because grains may attract insects or may
become moldy if they become moist, keep
them in tightly closed, moisture-proof
containers. Grains can be stored at room
temperature, but they will remain fresh
longer if stored in the refrigerator, where
they will keep for several months. Most
grains can be kept much longer if stored in
the freezer. They do not need to be thawed
before cooking. Cooked grain may be
stored in the refrigerator for several days and then reheated.
Preparation
Whole grains are hard and dry. Thus, cooking involves not only heating them but also
rehydrating them. For that reason, whole
grains, with few exceptions, are cooked in
liquid. Here's a traditional method for doing so:
- Bring water (or other liquid, such as a
stock) to a boil. Many cooks use a ratio of
two to three parts water to one part grain.
- Add grains and other seasonings.
- Cover mixture and reduce to a simmer.
- Simmer until most of the liquid is absorbed.
- Remove mixture from heat and drain
excess liquid if necessary. Let sit for approximately 5 minutes, then fluff with a fork.
Cooking times vary depending on the
kind of grain used, how it has been
processed, and whether it has been pre-cooked (bulgur and kasha are often lightly
cooked, then dried before they are sold in
stores). Most cooks recommend cooking
whole grains as you would pasta. Simply
cook them until tender-a time that may
range from 8 minutes for "instant" types of
white rice to more than an hour for whole
wheat or other unmilled grains.
Some grains that are particularly
tough-such as wheat or rye-may be
easier to cook if they are first soaked.
Rinsing whole grains before cooking also
is advised to remove debris or other residues.
Grains
AMARANTH
Amaranth was one
of the main food sources for the Aztecs, who also used it in religious rituals.
Cultivation ended almost completely after Spanish conquistadors made growing the
plant a punishable offense. Today, both farmers and anyone interested in
nutrition are showing increasing interest in the plant because it has more
protein (15 percent to 18 percent of calories) than most other grains (8 to 15
percent of calories). Amaranth also contains more
lysine and
methionine, amino acids not provided
by many common grains. Combined with other grains,
it can provide a complete balance of amino
acids. Amaranth is also a source of calcium
and magnesium and contains more iron than almost any other grain.
The amaranth plant has long clusters
of red flowers and grows to a height of 3 to
5 feet. It produces tiny seeds-up to
500,000 per plant. These seeds can be
cooked and eaten as a grain or popped,
sprouted, or ground into flour that has a
strong, nutty flavor. Amaranth flour can
range from a light yellow to dark violet,
although most amaranth flour sold in stores is buff-colored.
Pasta can be made from amaranth flour,
and amaranth oil is obtained from the
plant's seeds. The green leaves and stalk of
amaranth (also called pigweed) can be
cooked and eaten. The leaves have a taste
similar to that of spinach.
BARLEY
An annual plant that grows to a height
of 1 to 4 feet, is hardy enough to withstand
various growing conditions. For this reason,
throughout history barley has been cultivated
as a food crop and remains a staple in many
nations, particularly in North Africa, the
Middle East, and Asia. Today, however, much
of the barley produced in Western nations
is fed to animals or used in the production
of beer or distilled liquor. An enzyme in
malt made from barley transforms the
starch in beer or liquor mashes into sugars
that alcohol-producing yeast can feed on
and, therefore, ferment, a process that leads
to the production of alcohol.
Given the health benefits of barley, its
versatility, and its pleasing, lightly nutty taste, its banishment from many nations'
kitchens is something to reconsider.
Barley has a tough husk surrounding the
grain seed which must be removed before
it is edible. Barley is a source of soluble
fiber, niacin, phosphorus, magnesium, and iron.
Barley grains are usually off-white, but
the color may range from black to purple.
How the grain is milled determines its
nutritional content. Nutrients are most
concentrated near the bran. Therefore, the
more milling the barley undergoes, the less nutritious it is.
Types of barley sold in stores include:
Flaked barley - As its name suggests,
barley flakes are grains that have been flattened. They resemble rolled oats.
Pot barley or Scotch barley - This type
of barley is coarsely ground, but it loses
most of its nutrients because almost the entire husk is removed.
Pearled barley - So-named because
processed barley grains are the same size as
pearls and ivory-colored, pearled barley is
processed multiple times to scour or polish
off the outer husk and the bran. The result
is a barley that cooks much more quickly than other types of barley.
Hulled barley - Hulled barley has only
the outer husk removed and still contains
most of its bran. This makes it one of the
most nutritious types of barley available.
Barley flour - Barley flour is simply
barley grains ground very fine. It is darker
than refined white flour and has a delicate, nutty flavour.
Supermarkets typically do not carry a
wide variety of barley products, although
pearled barley and prepared barley soups
are easy to find. Health food stores or
specialty food markets are more likely to
carry less refined barley products.
BUCKWHEAT
From a botanical standpoint, buckwheat is
a fruit and is in the same plant family as
rhubarb. However, it is processed, prepared,
and consumed like cereal grains such as wheat, rye, and oats.
Buckwheat products have a strong, nutlike flavor and include the following:
Buckwheat flours - As the name suggests, these are flours ground from the
buckwheat seed. Supreme buckwheat flour
is milled from whole buckwheat. Fancy
buckwheat flour is milled from hulled buckwheat seeds. Buckwheat flour is commonly
used to make pancakes, but it has a variety of other uses.
Farinetta - This is simply a product made from the bran of buckwheat seeds.
Buckwheat groats - Groats are hulled
buckwheat kernels that have been crushed.
Groats that are roasted are known as kasha,
a name given to this product in Eastern
European countries, where it has been a staple for centuries.
Nutritionally, buckwheat has unique
characteristics. The protein quality of buckwheat is higher than that of wheat,
soy, oats,
or brown rice. For this reason, buckwheat is added to other cereal flours to improve
nutritional quality, and it is often an ingredient in snack foods. Recent studies have
linked various phytochemicals in buckwheat with potential health benefits. Rutin,
a flavonoid found in buckwheat bran, is
being studied for a possible role in managing blood cholesterol levels. Fagopyritols
found in buckwheat may have a favorable
effect on blood glucose levels in people with
type 2 diabetes. Regular consumption of
buckwheat also has been shown to lower
blood pressure. However, further research
is necessary to confirm these benefits.
CORN
FLAX
MILLET
Millet is the oldest of grains. And although
it is often used in the United States as bird
feed, millet is one of the main food sources for many developing nations.
There are many different species of
millet, which is tiny, has an oblong-spherical
shape, and ranges from pale yellow to reddish
orange. Unlike most grains, which form
ears, most varieties of millet form panicles,
or berry-shaped heads. Millet berries are
small and range from white, gray, or yellow
to red or reddish brown. Common millet
is grown worldwide and is used mainly for
human consumption and animal feed.
Foxtail millet is also grown in a variety of
areas and is often used for birdseed or, in
Russia, to make beer. Pearl millet is grown primarily in India.
Varieties that are more familiar to North
Americans include sorghum and teff.
Sorghum is widely grown in the American
South and included there in regional cuisine. In the United States, sorghum
molasses is used as syrup at the table and
in baked goods. Teff was grown almost
exclusively in Ethiopia until the past decade,
when it was introduced in Western markets.
Often thought of as a "famine food," teff
is also grown and distributed by humanitarian agencies to relieve world hunger.
Millet has a strong, nutty flavor that
may take some time to appreciate. Finely
ground millet is used by Ethiopians to make
fermented, spongy flat bread, by Indians
to make crepe-like roti, and by the Macau in
Africa to make beer. Nutritionally, millet
is a good source of niacin, thiamin, phosphorus, and zinc and provides a fair amount
of iron. Millet also is easy to digest.
OATS
QUINOA
Quinoa is hailed as the super grain of the future,
but the accolades are a little misleading.
Quinoa (a name supposedly derived from
the Spanish word for "fantastic") is not really
a grain. It is the fruit of a plant that belongs
to the same botanical family as beets. The
quinoa plant reaches a height of 3 to 10
feet and produces flat, pointed seeds that
range from buff to russet to black.
Quinoa is relatively easy to cultivate and
withstands poor soil conditions and altitude. Quinoa also packs a nutritional punch in
its tiny seeds. Quinoa contains more protein than
most grains and offers a more evenly balanced array of amino acids, the building
blocks of protein. Quinoa is higher in minerals,
such as calcium, phosphorus, magnesium,
potassium,
copper, zinc, and iron, than many grains.
Quinoa seeds can be cooked or ground
into flour. Several types of pasta are made
from quinoa flour. The leaves of the plant
also are edible, and the seeds can be sprouted and eaten.
RICE
Most typically viewed as a side dish in Western
nations, rice is the main entree when the
rest of the world sits down to eat, providing
up to half the calories in a typical daily diet
in many Asian countries. Rice is also a staple in Africa.
Most of the world's rice is grown in
Asia. The plant, which grows from 8 to 12
feet in height, can withstand a wide range
of climate conditions, but it grows best in
hot, humid areas. Branching stems from
the plant produce flowers, which form the
rice grains when fertilized. There are more than 8,000 varieties of rice.
Rice is commercially classified by its grain size:
Short-grain (round-grain) rice - Short-grain rice is round or oval and less than 1/5
inch long. It has a higher starch content
that results in this rice being sticky after
cooking. This kind of rice is also called pearl or glutenous rice (although there is no gluten in it).
Medium-grain rice - Medium-grain
rice is up to 1/4 inch in length. It remains
firm and light when cooked and retains
more moisture than long-grain rice.
Long-grain rice - This rice is more than
1/4 inch in length. The grains are much
longer than they are wide. They tend to
remain separate when cooked and are drier
than shorter-grain rice. Most rice grown
in the United States is long-grain rice.
Each type of rice comes in both brown
and white forms. Brown rice has only the
tough, fibrous hull removed from the rice
grain during processing. Because of this,
it retains most of its nutrients, which
include fiber (bran), potassium, phosphorus,
and trace minerals. It also is chewier, has a
stronger flavor, and takes longer to cook.
Quick-cooking forms of brown rice, which have been partially cooked and then dried, are available.
White rice is the most popular form of
rice. One reason is that the milling process,
which removes the husk, bran, and germ,
makes the rice cook more rapidly and extends
its shelf life. Unfortunately, it's also the least
nutritious form of rice. In Western nations,
rice is enriched, meaning nutrients such as
iron, niacin, riboflavin, and thiamin are
returned to the rice before it is sold to consumers. Parboiled rice has been processed to
preserve some of the nutrients during milling.
Instant rice is white rice that has been
milled, cooked, and then dehydrated. It
takes about 5 minutes to cook, and its
nutritional content is generally equivalent
to that of white rice because most instant rice is enriched.
Specialty types of rice include arborio
rice, which is round white rice used in Italian dishes, and aromatic rices. Generally,
aromatic rices-sometimes referred to as
perfumed rices-are long-grain types of
rice and have a distinct flavor typically compared to that of popcorn or
nuts. Basmati
rice has a nut-like aroma and a rich, buttery
flavor. It is widely used in Indian and
Pakistani cuisine. Jasmine rice is cultivated
primarily in Southeast Asia and has a soft
texture. Glutenous, or sweet, rice has a
high starch content and is used in Asian
cooking to thicken sauces and make
dumplings and for some types of desserts.
Rice also can be milled into fine, powdery
flour, which can be used in baked goods.
Store rice in an airtight container. Brown
rice, which naturally contains oil, keeps for
about 6 months, but it is subject to rancidity.
Its shelf life can be extended, however, by
storing it in the refrigerator in an airtight
container. White rice can keep for up to a
year. Cooked rice can be stored in the refrigerator for several days, but it will last for 6 to
8 months when kept in the freezer.
RYE
Rye belongs to the same botanical family as
wheat and barley. The plant is indigenous
to Europe and Asia. The plant itself is often
bushy at the base and stands 5 to 8 feet high.
Rye grows well in areas where the soil is too
poor and the climate too cool for wheat.
Rye grains have the same elongated
shape as wheat grains. The color ranges
from buff to gray. The husks are removed
during milling, but usually much of the
germ and bran remain, which enhances the
nutritional value of rye products. The grains may be used whole, cracked, or rolled like
oats, but they are generally ground into flour.
Rye flour comes in several different
varieties. Light rye flour has most of the
bran removed. Dark rye flour retains most
of the bran and germ and is a source of
magnesium, trace minerals, folic acid, thiamin, and niacin.
Dark rye flour is traditionally used to
make the dark, strongly flavored German
bread called pumpernickel. Rye also is used
in many alcoholic beverages, including
whiskey and some types of vodka.
Like most grain products, rye should be stored in airtight containers to retard spoilage.
WHEAT
Wheat is among the oldest of grain crops.
Major wheat-producing areas include the
United States, whose Great Plains are considered the "breadbasket of the world,"
Canada, China, western Europe, Ukraine,
Kazakhstan, Russia, India, Pakistan, and Australia.
Wheat is an annual plant that grows
between 2 and 4 feet high, depending on
the variety of wheat grown and growing
conditions. The grains are contained in a
bearded spike developed by the plant.
Unlike many other grains, it can be difficult
to cultivate. Nevertheless, it is easily one
of the most common grains grown around
the world. Only rice rivals it in production.
Most of the wheat grown in the world
is eaten by humans-often in the form of
bread. Wheat's high gluten content makes
it particularly well adapted for this use.
Because of this, wheat flour is the framework for almost all baked goods and pasta.
Wheat also is used in the manufacture of beer and whiskey.
The three major types of wheat are:
Hard - Hard wheat is high in protein
(10 to 14 percent). It is also high in gluten
content, which gives the flour elasticity and
makes it particularly suitable for yeast breads.
Soft - The low-protein (6 to 10 percent)
flour is lower in gluten. It's often used to
make "softer" baked goods, such as cakes.
Durum - This is the hardest wheat
grown and is highest in gluten. Despite
that, it is not used in baked goods. Instead,
it is used to make semolina, the main ingredient of pasta.
Wheat also is classified according to
the time of year it is planted. Spring wheat,
as its name suggests, is sown in the spring.
Winter wheat is grown in areas with more
moderate winters and is sown in the late fall.
Literally thousands of products are
made from wheat-flour, bread, and pasta
are just the fundamental items. Whole-wheat products, however, are the most
nutritious because they have not been
milled as extensively as more refined
products. Whole-wheat products include the following:
Cracked wheat - As the name implies,
this is wheat seed that has been broken into
small pieces. It can be finely or coarsely cracked.
Bulgur - A popular ingredient in many
Middle East dishes, bulgur is a type of
cracked wheat that has been steam-cooked
and dried. Because of this, it does not
require as much cooking time as other
whole-wheat products. Bulgur is used for
making tabbouleh (a well-known Middle
East cuisine favorite), cereal, and pilaf. It
is available in a variety of grinds, from fine to coarse.
Farina - A breakfast favorite, farina is
perhaps better known as Cream of Wheat.
It is made from the endosperm of the wheat
seed, which is then milled very finely.
Farina can be used in dumplings, main
dishes, or desserts, particularly in Indian and Greek cuisine.
Wheat flakes - Also known as rolled
wheat, these are wheat seeds that have been
flattened. They look like rolled oats,
although they are slightly larger and thicker.
Although it might be easy to picture these
as the main component of many cold breakfast cereals, wheat flakes are not the product used in these cereals.
Groats or wheat berries - These are
other names for wheat seeds sold whole.
Because they have undergone very little
milling, these are among the most nutritious of wheat products.
WILD RICE
Not really a rice, although closely related
to it genetically, wild rice is actually an
aquatic grain. It is the seed of a marsh grass
that grows in the northern Great Lakes area
of the United States. It is known for its
hazelnut-like flavor, dark-brown color, and
chewy texture. American Indians, who
once waged wars over areas where wild rice
grew abundantly, have harvested it for
centuries. These indigenous peoples called
wild rice "mahnomen," meaning "precious gift from the gods."
First domesticated successfully in the
1950s after many attempts to mimic the
moist, murky conditions where the wild
rice-producing grass grows best, wild rice
is now grown commercially in the Upper
Midwest and in California.
Most wild rice is eaten whole, but it also can be ground into flour.
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