Acupuncture is founded on an array of philosophies that are absolutely different from the theories on which Western medicine is based.
The basis of a physician's diagnosis of a patient's ailment in the West is his/ her understanding of anatomy, pathology, physiology and biochemistry.
Having diagnosed the disease, the physician will make a decision on whether to cure the patient using medications, performing surgery or through other means.
Nevertheless, the physicians find that it is extremely difficult to treat a number of patients, as despite the patients being obviously ailing, all medical examinations performed on them prove to be normal and, hence, it becomes difficult to diagnose the ailment.
In fact, acupuncture, as several other complementary healings, is ideal for such patients, because, unlike the Western terms, there is no need for any diagnosis to treat the patient effectively.
Precisely speaking, acupuncture is among the oldest therapies of our civilization - it has been used for more than 2,000 years! Even though there have been new developments periodically, the fundamental theory as well as practice of acupuncture remains almost the same as it was practised over 20 centuries back.
The theory on which acupuncture is based also forms the basis of the herbal medicine practised by the Chinese. In effect, acupuncture and Chinese herbal medicine are regularly used in conjunction by healers in the East.
Initially when acupuncture became well-accepted in the West, this mode of treatment was generally used unaccompanied by any other therapy.
However, presently several practitioners also train themselves in Chinese herbal medicine and use the two therapies in conjunction.
The Nei Ching is considered to be the oldest literature on the theory on which Chinese medicine is based. This book has been translated into English and published under the name 'The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine'.
It is believed that the Yellow Emperor lived as far back as the 27th century B.C. However, there is some debate among scholars regarding the actual existence of the Yellow Emperor.
While one section believes the Yellow Emperor really existed, there is another group of scholars who claim that it is mere a mythical character - possibly someone who was initially based on a real individual who, over the period of time, has been bestowed with much more prominence than what is justified.
This disagreement can somewhat be compared to the scholarly debate in Britain regarding the existence of a real King Arthur.
Nevertheless, even in case the Yellow Emperor had really existed, it is very doubtful if he can be given the credit for present form of the Nei Ching. It is even unlikely that the book belonged to the period when he is said to have lived.
In fact, written Chinese was somewhat in an archaic format during the 27th century B.C. - very much different from the ancient ideographs that we are familiar with. Basically, the Nei Ching is a highly insightful work of medical literature and it would really have been unattainable to express so much information in this primordial script.
The latest view is that the Nei Ching is a compilation of many different essays, probably having their origin in specific medical school of thoughts or theorists.
It is believed that these dissertations were written over a period of time between roughly 200 B.C. and A.D. 100 and, subsequently, compiled later in the last part of this era. All these notwithstanding, the Nei Ching still remains a work completed in the very distant past.
While it is true that the Nei Ching is one of the oldest literature pertaining to Chinese medicine that has been passed on to us, it is doubtful whether this is the maiden manuscript ever written on the theories on which Chinese medicine is based.
In fact, the style in which this book was written does not suggest that it is dealing with something novel and original.
Without any doubt that acupuncture was extensively comprehended as well as practised by people in China by the time the Nei Ching was written.
In fact, the Nei Ching does not give the reader any instruction at all on the fundamental theory or the ideas and modus operandi that need to be employed to perform acupuncture, probably because by the time the book was published it was thought that people were already familiar with them.
The Nei Ching only deals with the more mysterious features of hypothesis, for instance, transfer of the principles that have the power to give life and transfer of the spirit as well as the seasons like the viscera's patterns.
The Nei Ching is in a question-answer form where the Yellow Emperor solicits answers, which are provided in detail by Ch'i Po. A number of these questions are highly philosophical or insightful covering several pages of the book.
For instance, the Ch'i Po is asked to elucidate 'how it is feasible to determine which of the signals sent by the 12 viscera to one another are valuable and which are useless' and 'if the brain together with the marrow regulate the viscera' or 'if the stomach regulates the viscera' or 'whether the six bowels are governed by the viscera'.
Irrespective of whether the Yellow Emperor really existed or not, he definitely had an excellent understanding of the basic theories on which Chinese medicine is founded.
Several stories relating to distinguished acupuncture practitioners have also been passed on to us since the last 2,000 years or even more.
A couple of centuries prior to the period when Nei Ching is believed to have been written, to some extent after the era when the Yellow Emperor is said to have lived, Pien Chueh, a renowned traveling physician as well as medicine teacher, lived in China.
Although the precise dates pertaining to his life are not known, traditionally, Pien Chueh is believed to have lived some time during the 4th century B.C.
One of the several stories pertaining to Pien Chueh talks about the time when the physician and medicine teacher was traveling through the Kuo province along with a number of his students or apprentices.
When Pien Chueh and his students reached the town where the local king as well as his court resided, they noticed that several sacrifices were being made to the Gods at the temples, while some people were engaged in making arrangements for a funeral.
As Pien Chueh started making inquiries regarding the happenings, people told him that the king's son had taken ill all of a sudden and had become comatose, which the physicians of the court were unable to bring him back to consciousness.
The local people told Pien Chueh that they feared that the king's son would inevitably die and, hence, they were making the funeral arrangements for the prince.
Hearing this, Pien Chueh asked the informants if they could make the necessary arrangements to introduce him in the king's court and told them that he believed that he may possibly prevent the boy's death.
Soon, the necessary arrangements were made and the king eagerly permitted Pien Chueh to examine the prince, who was lying in a comatose.
Pien Chueh examined the prince thoroughly and also diagnosed the child on the basis of his vast understanding of Chinese medicine. Subsequently, he started the treatment by inserting acupuncture needles in the prince's head, chest, and limbs.
To everyone's surprise, the prince regained consciousness soon. Thereafter, Pien Chueh continued treating the prince and kept a close eye on his progress for three consecutive weeks.
Besides acupuncture, Pien Chueh also employed herbal remedies and heat treatment. After three weeks, the prince regained his complete health and started his normal activities.
Although the story does not tell anything about the fate of the court physicians, it can be guessed that the king might have made the necessary arrangements to ensure that they also learnt the fundamentals of acupuncture.
The story described that Pien Chueh had employed heat treatment to cure the prince and this could be a reference to moxibustion - a therapeutic technique that is employed by physicians even to this day.
Moxibustion involves stimulating the acupuncture points by using heat. The technique derives its name from an herb called moxa, which is set on fire to provide the heat.
Although the basic technique of moxibustion remains the same, in contemporary times, acupuncturists fasten a tiny amount of moxa at the end of the needle that has been already planted into an acupuncture point of the patient and light it up, enabling the heat generated to travel along the needle and into the acupuncture point evading the hazard of blazing the skin.
However, the original method involved placing some moxa directly on the skin or on a piece of ginger positioned on the pertinent acupuncture point and burning the herb. Even now, a few acupuncturists follow this ancient method of moxibustion.
However, the precise manner in which moxibustion plays a part in the acupuncture is yet to be ascertained. as a number of ancient literature that have been discovered talks about moxa, but does not make any reference of acupuncture, a section of people are of the view that moxibustion has been in existence even before the advent of acupuncture.
Despite the fact that these ancient texts were discovered in a tomb that was constructed during the Han dynasty (between 206 B.C. and A.D. 220 - the period during which people have been already extensively using acupuncture), possibly these texts were copies of other books that were even much older.
Moreover, while moxa has been therapeutically employed for several centuries, it is assumed that people were possibly aware of the curative attribute of applying warmth to the acupuncture points much before they discovered the medicinal attributes of burning the leaves of moxa and even much before therapists used needles to heal the acupuncture points.
Probably before the advent of needles, people first used things like grass and twigs to create an effect similar to that of the acupuncture needles.
Documents available reveal that earlier, people have been using a variety of other materials, for instance, bamboo, charcoal, sulfur and others, for this purpose.
Similar to cannabis or the dried leaves of the other noxious plant tobacco, moxa also burns gradually and is mainly used for treating ailments that are generally attributed to dampness or cold.
While moxa has been and continues to be a very helpful herb in its native China, it has been used far more extensively in Japan.
As Japan comprises a group of islands, the climate there is much clammier compared to the vast spread of China and, hence, the occurrence of diseases related to dampness is much more in this island nation.
Therefore, it would be most appropriate that the name 'moxa', as it is known in the West, has originated in Japan - derived from two Japanese words, which, when translated into English denoted 'burning herb'.
In China, moxa is known as 'chiu', which denotes 'to blister or cauterize'.
It is believed that the medicinal value associated with burning the acupuncture points may have been discovered accidentally.
Since acupuncture is a very ancient therapy, it is very difficult to ascertain its origins and today people are in total darkness regarding its beginning.
It is strange indeed that despite considering the numerous primeval allegories and folk heroes, there is no single myth that explains as to how it actually started off.
Among the several theories that have been proposed, the burn theory is one and it hints that in ancient times when people crowd around fires with a view to cook their foods as well as keep them warm they might have often been burnt by flying flickers.
It is assumed that if the sparks landed on them, especially burning the precise acupuncture points, it is possible that they might have been incredibly cured of a variety of ailments endured by them.
When such 'miracles' occurred a few times and to several people, it is possible that they may have begun realizing that one way or the other these specific points on their bodies had curative properties.
When a particular point is stimulated, some patients will experience a feeling that will continue all the way through the meridian on which the point lies.
In the case of other patients, you are able to see a flush flow along the meridian's line when a needle is inserted into a point.
It is believed that founded on this perception the Chinese may have possibly begun working to find a network of lines that connected the joints in concert - the precursor of meridians, as we know them now.
Moreover, it might have seemed to these ancient people that they could therapeutically utilize these points by burning them, because burning seemed to result in the curative effects.
Hence, this helps to establish the theory that treating the acupuncture points by means of moxa burning was possibly worked out much ahead of acupuncture itself.
What is fascinating about acupuncture is the discovery of the fact that even in its initial days this ancient mode of treatment was no limited only to China.
The body of a man was discovered about 10,000 feet on a glacier on Italy's northern border in 1991. It was found that the man had died about 5,000 years back, but ice had preserved the body perfectly.
When the body was examined, it was found that the person had an arthritic problem which made him endure back and hip pain.
It was also discovered that the body had mysterious tattoos on the ailing joints as well as the feet. Further examination revealed that these tattoos were made on different acupuncture points.
If this case is true that people in Europe used acupuncture as far back as 5,000 years, there is another mystery.
While we are still not sure regarding the origin as well as the reason behind the development of acupuncture, now we are also in the darkness as to why acupuncture continues to flourish in China, while it became extinct in other places.
However, what is certain is that when people had discovered the acupuncture points, no matter how, they perhaps experimented with different techniques to stimulate them.
It is likely that pointed flints or stones, which are referred to as bian stones, were the earliest tools for performing acupuncture.
However, the use of these objects must have been restricted owing to their shape as well as size and, hence, it is likely the bian stones were only used to scrape, or perhaps to prick, the acupuncture points located on the meridians.
In addition, it has been found that these primitive people also used sharp fragments of pottery. The instruments that were developed in the next phase were slightly adaptable.
Subsequently, bamboos and sharpened bones were used as acupuncture instruments - in fact, it was possible to shape these like needles.
Nevertheless, the manufacture of needles, which could be put into a patient's skin and the layer underneath it, was only possible after man had discovered the technique to smelt metals.
With the availability of various types of metals - for instance, iron, silver, bronze and also gold, people started using them to make the first acupuncture needles.
Acupuncture needles made from gold and silver were discovered from the tomb of Prince Liu Sheng, who belonged to the Western Han dynasty (206 B.C. and A.D. 24).
Considering the fact that acupuncture needles were also included among the burial items of this Han dynasty prince, it may be assumed that people in that era believed that they might require healthcare in heaven too.
Compared to other substances like stones, bones and even bamboo, which the ancient acupuncturists used initially, metal was much more adaptable and, hence, now they were able to make needles of differing shapes that were employed for dissimilar techniques.
It is presumed that the metallic needles were initially made inadvertently, because in the earliest stage processing metals was somewhat rudimentary and it is difficult to imagine that they could make the same needles every time they wanted.
Nevertheless, near the beginning, acupuncturists may have possibly recognized that needles with different shapes have different effects.
Hence, with the improvement in the smithing quality, they were able to place orders for precise shapes of needles that were found to be very useful.
At the time of writing the Nei Ching, some 2,000 years back, people were already using nine different types of acupuncture needles - which were quite similar to the array of needles that are used by acupuncturists even now.
Some of the needles were very fine, which, like in contemporary times were employed mostly for all uncomplicated treatments.
In addition, some needles had arrowheads and these were employed by the practitioners only to prick an acupuncture point, instead of inserting the needle into the meridian.
Even three-sided needles were available and these were used to bring on minor bleeding. Even to this day, acupuncturists use needles having triangular tips that terminate into a sharp point when they need to induce bleeding.
Round-ended or blunt needles were employed when the acupuncture points had to be massaged or pressure applied on them, while needles akin to a scalpel were employed to make incisions in abscesses and boils.
In fact, comparatively large and heavy needles were used for inserting them into the joints.
When the most sensitive acupuncture points that were considerably beneath the surface of the skin having fat or a thick muscle had to be stimulates, they used needles that were extra long.
In present times, acupuncture practitioners even use needles that are as long as three inches in some body areas like the buttocks.
However, these needles are also significantly shorter compared to some of the needles employed by the acupuncture practitioners in the early stage.
Presently, nearly all needles that are used for the purpose of acupuncture are manufactured from stainless steel. In fact, stainless steel needles were first made in the early part of the 20th century and they provide immense advantages, as it is easy to sterilize them and they also do not rust.
Nevertheless, ever since the emergence of AIDS as well as different types of hepatitis that is passed on through blood, an increasing number of acupuncture practitioners have started using disposable needles - which are used only once and then discarded.
Prior to the introduction of stainless steel, needles made from silver and gold were used extensively, as these two precious metals are comparatively inert and are very unlikely to result in any undesirable reactions when they are inserted into any individual's skin.
However, it is possible that some other reasons may also have been responsible for the popularity of gold and silver needles.
It was believed that gold needles themselves possessed some kind of invigorating effect, while needles made from silver as well as other white metals had a soothing impact.
It was also believed that needles made from copper had a stimulating effect.
However, in present times, needles made from precious metals have some specific disadvantages - compared to stainless steel needles, they are more expensive and are so valuable that they cannot be discarded after using them once.
In addition, these needles require re-sharpening. Nevertheless, a number of acupuncturists still have much faith in their inherent healing effects and, hence, they continue using needles made from gold and silver even today.
In the West, the basic curriculum of medical students includes general medicine as well as surgery.
Similarly, students learning the techniques of acupuncture in China and also taught herbal medicine, which is also founded of the same basic principle of the functioning of the body as well as flow of energy, as in acupuncture.
As you may have thought, medical schools imparting knowledge on acupuncture techniques and herbal medicine in China were founded much before the West set up its very first medical school.
Although the earliest medical school funded by the state and imparting knowledge on every aspect relating to Chinese medicine opened in China in A.D. 443, it was closed down within a decade.
This compelled the medicals students to return to their traditional mode of learning and apprenticeship under a veteran physician. Several years later, an Imperial Medical Academy was set up during the Sui dynasty in A.D. 581.
However, medical education actually began developing in China under the Tang dynasty, which reigned between A.D. 618 and A.D. 906.
The academy underwent significant expansion in A.D. 624 and several departments were established to teach acupuncture, pharmacology, internal medicine and massage, in addition to Buddhist as well as Taoist invocations, which was considered to be essential for any physician in those days.
It was the first time that one could learn acupuncture as well as moxibustion as separate disciplines - independent from herbal medicine.
The students were required to study medicine for a duration that is more or less the same or slightly longer than the medical course in the West now.
It was mandatory for a student to complete a common basic course prior to specializing in any one stream of medicine.
After a student had passed the specialized course, he was able to learn internal medicine - a seven-year course, or paediatrics or surgery, both courses lasting for five years each.
However, a student had to spend much less time for being trained in other limited specialities, for instance, ailments related to the throat, ear and nose.
Similar to the medical schools in present times, the Imperial Medical Academy also used standard textbooks to train students.
Besides the Nei Ching, Chia I Ching, a book written by Huang-Pu Mi in the 3rd century B.C., was another standard textbook that was used by the academy to train its students.
The Chia I Ching or The Classic of Acupuncture Fundamentals, is considered to be the oldest that is completely dedicated to acupuncture as well as moxibustion that has come down to us.
It is important to note that the Chia I Ching has been used as a reference is several books published later and it is learnt to have played a vital role in developing acupuncture in neighbouring nations like Japan and Korea.
The Imperial Medical Academy also used another standard textbook called the Mai Ching or The Classic of the Pulse written by Wang Su-Ho.
In Chinese medicine, pulse taking is considered to be a more precise as well as comprehensive science in comparison to the West, as it has a much more important role in diagnosing ailment.
In fact, a student may spend several years to specialize in understanding the pulse. Moreover, since all types of traditional Chinese medicine, including acupuncture, are founded on identical conjectures relating to origins of diseases, diagnosing the pulse is elementary to all these forms.
The Classic of the Pulse by Wang Su-Ho did not talk about or develop a new stream of science, but was a compilation from various primeval diagnostic modus operandi that had developed together with the advancement of Chinese medicine.
Various other books that were published much before The Classic of the Pulse had also talked about diagnosing the pulse.
These books include the Nei Ching, which presents somewhat comprehensive accounts pertaining to the pulse quality in different stages of diseases.
It is said that the fourth century legendary acupuncture practitioner Pien Chueh also diagnosed the pulse to treat diseases.
It is said that the great acupuncturist Pien Chueh was the first ever physician who used all the four fundamental methods of Chinese diagnosis together.
The first technique is observation, which involves the physician to examine the patient's color, complexion, tongue and skin in the same manner as a contemporary physician in the West performs the initial examination of his patient.
However, a practitioner of Chinese medicine and a physician in the West would interpret their findings differently.
In traditional Chinese medicine, the tongue is considered to be similar to the pulse, which is able to offer much more to a qualified Chinese physician compared to what it will tell a doctor in the West. Hence, the observation of the tongue is essential for the proper diagnosis of a patient.
The second Chinese diagnose technique, or a combination of methods, which were used by Pien Chueh including smelling and listening.
He would closely observe the patient's quality of speech - for instance, normal, garbled or shrill and likewise, as well as listen the sound of the patient's breathing.
However, Pien Chueh definitely did not get the benefit of using the present Western examination device called the stethoscope.
In addition, the legendary Chinese medicine physician would smell the body odour or his patient - this is perhaps something significant in a culture where people were not familiar with running water, both hot and cold, and people also did not bathe regularly.
While a number of acupuncture practitioners continue to use this method even to this day, sometimes it is also used in contemporary Western medicine.
For instance, if a physician smells acetone in the breath of the patient, it is generally considered to be a hint that the patient has diabetes and his condition is going beyond control.
The third method that was practiced by Pien Chueh during diagnosing a patient involved questioning, which is a major part of diagnosis in all medicine forms, including Chinese, Western, Indian Ayurvedic as well as other harmonizing treatments. In the end, Pien Chueh diagnosed the pulse of the patient.
During the sixth century A.D., the Chinese exported The Classic of the Pulse to Japan as well as Korea.
As Chinese medicine had arrived in these two neighboring nations many centuries earlier their medical practice also incorporated the art of pulse diagnosis.
A few years after publication of The Classic of the Pulse, another book titled The Chu Ping Yuan Hou Lun, which is known as 'A Discourse on the Causes as well as Symptoms of All Ailments' in English was published in A.D. 610 and it also had a very significant role in the advancement of Japanese as well as Korean medicine.
Perhaps the ostentatious title of this book was validated, because it comprised as many as 50 volumes and virtually brought together the entire medical knowledge available at that time. Chao Yuan Fang, who edited this fabulous book, was a physician at emperor's court.
With the advancement of Chinese medicine during the Tang dynasty, it became well-known to many in other parts of the globe and several physicians from different nations began to arrive in China to be trained in the latest techniques.
Physicians from the Arab world came to China to study pulse diagnosis as well as the cause and treatment of various contagious ailments.
Eventually, during the 11th century A.D., the Chinese exported The Classic of the Pulse to the Middle East and by the middle of the 14th century, this wonderful book was transformed into Turkish.
Abu-Ali al-Husain ibn Abdullah ibn Sina, the renowned Persian physician who was more familiar as Avicenna (A.D. 980 to A.D. 1037), wrote down a great medical text titled AI-Qanun fi'l-Tibb (which when translated into English denotes The Canon of Medicine) wherein he talked about the accomplishments of the Greek physicians and also explained the different medical techniques, which had been written in other Arabic books.
In addition, Avicenna also incorporated the different techniques he had developed himself during the course of his practice, information derived from what he learnt during his several travels as well as what he realized from reading various medical books into his massive work.
The contents of his book also included pulse diagnosis. He was familiar with 24 different kinds of pulse and wrote about them in detail in his book.
Both, acupuncture as well as moxibustion became very well accepted in China during the reign of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960 to A.D. 1279), primarily owing to the patronage they received from the emperors and the nobility.
Notwithstanding this and in spite of the fact that acupuncture as well as the diagnostic techniques related to Chinese medicine had become very familiar to people in several regions in Asia and the Middle East, the imperial court in China was of the view that over the years imprecision had taken place in the practice of Chinese medicine.
In fact, several books written in the early periods were missing and several of the benchmark reference books were basically compilations of other works and it was possible that they might have included many errors.
During the 11th century, a physician in the courts of two Northern Sung dynasty emperors - Chen-Tsung (A.D. 997 to A.D. 1022) as well as Jen-Tsung (A.D. 1022 to A.D. 1063), Wang Wei-I was told to undertake an investigation to determine the soundness of the acupuncture system that was being practised then as well as to undertake the earliest major modification of the theory related to acupuncture.
Following this, Wang Wei-I engaged him in a massive investigation program. He probed into the entire acupuncture points, which were used by practitioners then and validated their positions.
In addition, Wang Wei-I examined every point in succession and confirmed the length to which each point ought to be pierced with a view to create the most favourable effect.
In the end, he detected the consequences that might be caused by inserting needles in each of the acupuncture points on the body. Based on his findings, Wang Wei-I brought out a book referred to as The New Illustrated Manual on the Points for Acupuncture.
The precise dates when Wang Wei-I lived are not known, but it is believed that he may possibly have died before 1034 - the year in which the emperor who patronized him, Emperor Jen-Tsung, a conformist Confucian as well as a benefactor of scholars, became ill.
At that time, the emperor was just 24-years-old and was being attended by physicians of the imperial court, who despite using various acupuncture techniques, were not able to make him well. In the end, an extremely proficient acupuncturist called Xu Xi treated him with success.
It is surprising to know that the courtiers who were close to the emperor, however, almost prevented Xu Xi from undertaking his treatment.
This is because after examining the emperor, the master acupuncturist announced that he planned to introduce needles into points just lower than the level of the heart in the emperor's chest.
Appalled at this, the courtiers said that they would not allow the treatment to take place under any circumstance, as they believed that this mode of treatment would kill the emperor, instead of curing him.
However, Xu Xi promised the courtiers that the therapy was definitely safe and he even proposed that he would like to hold a demonstration of the treatment technique on an individual, whose death, even if it did happen, would be a lesser tragedy.
The courtiers accepted this proposal and they suggested that Xu Xi perform the demonstration on the court eunuchs seemed to be not very important.
Accordingly, Xu Xi inserted the acupuncture needles into the chest of the eunuchs and at the specific points he had mentioned.
When nothing detrimental happened and the eunuchs remained unscathed, the courtiers were astonished as well as relieved to see that the acupuncturist has told the truth.
Eventually, the courtiers permitted Xu Xi to undertake the treatment on the emperor and he recovered rapidly.
All those present in the court were impressed to such extent by Xu Xi's skills that he was immediately anointed the Imperial Medical Academy officer.
While it is apparent that a number of court physicians in Emperor Jen-Tsung's court were not mostly skilled in the techniques of acupuncture, people still remember Wang Wei-I, who served Jen-Tsung as well as Emperor Chen-Tsung, for his contribution to acupuncture as well as for spreading knowledge regarding the techniques of this therapy.
It is interesting to note that Wang Wei-I used a human model made from bronze and whose surface was perforated with holes precisely made at all the points used in acupuncture.
Obviously, this was founded on the entire investigations he had embarked on while compiling his book titled The New Illustrated Manual on the Points for Acupuncture.
Later, the bronze models introduced by Wang Wei-I turned out to be important aids for teaching the techniques of acupuncture to medical students.
In addition, these bronze models were also used to assess the knowledge of the students during examinations undertaken at the Imperial Medical Academy.
Prior to any examination, the models were swathed with a dense layer of molten wax and it was allowed to solidify in order to conceal the holes made at the acupuncture points from the examinees.
Subsequently, the model's void inside was filled up with water. During the exam, a case would be narrated to the student and he would have to say what exactly he would do to cure the patient employing acupuncture.
Once the student would have finished explaining the acupuncture points he would use and the reason for doing so, he would be asked to find the points on the model by inserting one needle in each of the points, which he had mentioned, passing across the wax.
If the student was successful in locating the points, the needles would pass across the wax and well into the holes under the covering. The perforations would be made in such a manner that water would ebb after the needles were taken away.
Sometime during the middle of the 16th century, 500 years since Wang Wei-I made his first bronze model of a man, another acupuncturist Kao Wu improved upon the idea even further.
While all the bronze models used by Wang Wei-I were of men, Kao Wu considered it imperative that the acupuncture points were located at different places on the patients' body depending on their sex and age.
Hence, he ordered for bronze models of women as well as children, which he could use in the same manner as Wang Wei-I did with his bronze cast male models.
As Kao Wu was of the view that several errors had crept into the practice of acupuncture since the time Wang Wei-I embarked on his grand research, he undertook the mission to set it right.
Consequently, he wrote two very valuable books on acupuncture and its practice.
The first book, titled Essentials of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, was actually a synopsis of several important works undertaken earlier and was meant to be a guidebook for students learning the techniques of acupuncture and also for those who had just beginning to be trained in the techniques of acupuncture and moxibustion.
The second book by Kao Wu, titled Eminent Acupuncture, was meant for students who were undertaking further advanced studies as well as qualified acupuncture practitioners.
This book provided comprehensive information regarding the acupuncture points and meridians and the manner in which one ought to use them when treating various ailments.
Similar to Kao Wu's book titled Essentials of Acupuncture and Moxibustion, several other books on the subject were also written during this period.
However, these books were just revised as well as summarised editions of books by earlier authors. Nevertheless, another prominent acupuncturist named Yang Jizhou brought out a new book in 1601 titled A Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion.
In his book, Yang Jizhou not only compiled the works of several earlier works, but also incorporated sufficient information he gathered from his personal experience and experiments or researches undertaken by him.
During this time, traditional Chinese medicine as well as acupuncture spread to different countries and were practised by people other than those in China. In a number of countries like Japan and Korea, these therapies had already become popular medical treatment forms.
In fact, Chinese medicine was introduced for the first time in these two countries during the reign of the Chin dynasty (249 B.C. to 206 B.C.), but it actually started becoming popular with the expansion of Buddhism.
Following its advent in India in the 6th century B.C., Buddhism reached China roughly in mid-first century A.D. In China, Buddhism developed into practice and tradition and it arrived in Korea during the latter half of 4th century B.C.
Approximately two centuries later, Buddhism was introduced in Japan, which witnessed the development of the Zen school that now has followers across the globe.
While Buddhism did not immediately become popular in Japan, it was only after the regent Shotoku Taishi (593 A.D. to 622 A.D.) converted to Buddhism, it gave confidence to the Buddhist monks in China to travel to Japan.
It was a practice among the Buddhist monks in China to study acupuncture and Chinese medicine. During the reign of the Sui (589 A.D. to 618 A.D.) as well as the Tang (618 A.D. to 907 A.D.) dynasties, many such physician-monks visited Japan.
While these physician-monks were in Japan, they imparted knowledge to the Japanese on anything they desired to be trained in - not only Buddhism, but also the basics related to Chinese medicine.
The earliest Buddhist texts were all written in Pali. However, as the religion spread, scriptures were also written in other languages, such as Sanskrit and Chinese. Some texts written in Pali earlier were also translated into these languages.
However, translating these texts in Japanese for the benefit of the country that had just converted to Buddhism took some time and, hence, all the scriptures that were carried by the monks to Japan were in Chinese.
In case the Japanese who had converted to read the original texts and not only hear about them from the Chinese monks, who often appended their individual interpretations), they had no choice, but to read Chinese.
In fact, many converted Japanese just did this - learn Chinese. Once they became fluent in Chinese, the Japanese were not only able to read the Buddhist scriptures, but also other books that the monks carried with them from China - including those on Chinese medicine as well as acupuncture.
Later, during the 7th century, Japanese youths also began traveling to China with a view to master the Chinese language and many of them returned to Japan trained not only in Chinese, but also Chinese medicine.
When an adequate number of Japanese physicians became proficient in the Chinese language, it was possible to translate the main Chinese medical books into Japanese making them available for everyone.
And as expected, the Nei Ching was among the first medical books that were translated into Japanese and by early 8th century, it ranked among the standard textbooks for Japanese students studying medicine.
By the middle of the 8th century, many Chinese books were imported to Japan by a well-known medical doctor and philanthropist named Chien-Chen.
He had also founded a charity health centre in Japan for treating poor patients. Even to this day, several centuries later, Chien-Chen is remembered as well as revered in Japanese temples for his work among the ailing and poor.
Till the 16th century, Chinese medicine continued to be popular and finally the Western influences overshadowed it. During this period when major trading companies flourished.
Ships arrived from Europe to develop markets as well as to find dealers of luxury items in distant places across the world. The Portuguese were enthusiastically believed in the supremacy of Roman Catholicism over the entire 'pagan' religions dispatched their ships to the Far East with intentions other than just trading.
In the initial period, people were hostile towards them, as they found out that the Portuguese were only willing to trade with people whom they were unable to conquer.
Communities that were comparatively weak were vulnerable of being swamped and slaughtered. Therefore, initially the Portuguese were only given accessibility to one town in entire China - this was the only town with which they could trade.
However, the subsequent surge of Portuguese offensive was rather gentle, as this time the ships also carried missionaries, who succeeded in acquiring some position in China as well as in Japan.
Similar to the Buddhist monks who had arrived in Japan from China in the 6th century, the Roman Catholic missionaries also possessed a fair knowledge of medicine.
However, this knowledge about medicine then practised in Europe was definitely primitive in comparison to Chinese medicine. However, it took over traditional Chinese medicine practised in Japan, as it was something novel and different and possibly also because of the fact that people who introduced it to the East was more powerful.
During the subsequent three centuries, people in Japan continued practising Chinese medicine and acupuncture, but they were only second in important to the newly introduced Western medicine. In 1884, there was an endeavour to completely wipe out both when a proclamation was issued banning the teaching of acupuncture as well as herbal medicine anywhere in Japan.
This edict coincided with the establishment of the medical unit at the Tokyo University. However, even this was not enough to prevent people from practicing Chinese medicine and acupuncture, as they believed in these therapies.
Till now, acupuncture and traditional medicine continue to be practised together with the Western therapeutic techniques.
It is surprising to note that in 1822 - 62 years before training people in Chinese medicine and acupuncture techniques was banned in Japan, Emperor Tao Kuang of the Ch'ing dynasty had prohibited use of these therapies in country of their origin.
He had ordered the removal of these subjects from the Imperial Medical Academy's syllabus. However, as in the case of Japan, the imperial diktat was unable to prevent people from practising these therapies.
As people were very much aware of the importance and value of acupuncture and herbal therapy, they were not prepared to renounce them.
Kuomintang, a radical party, put an end to the imperial dynasty in 1912 and came to power, ruling China till the World War II came to a close. The Communists ousted the Kuomintang party after the Second World War.
As the Communists were very familiar with the views of the people regarding Chinese medicine and acupuncture, they revoked all bans on using these therapies.
The Communists not only encouraged the people to practice acupuncture, but also let it flourish.
At the same time, they made arrangements to reprint several ancient books on Chinese medicine, which had been used for several centuries in the form of standard textbooks, while many latest books were also written.
New colleges dedicated to imparting training in Chinese medicine were also set up and they had a separate acupuncture department. In the new era, research establishments were set up to study acupuncture and encourage its practice.
The medical schools that existed then taught only Western medicine since acupuncture and Chinese medicine were banned in 1822. They now included acupuncture in their syllabus.
Currently, there are several such schools in China and acupuncture is being taught in these institutions since 1949 in an incorporated course together with Western medicine.
People in the West were actually drawn to acupuncture when it dawned on them that this ancient therapy could be used as a substitute to anesthetics to regulate pain during surgeries.
There is no doubt that people in countries where acupuncture had been practiced for centuries were well aware of the usefulness of acupuncture in easing pain due to ailments.
Nevertheless, it was only by the close of the 19th century that surgeries were performed extensively and it was only in 1958 that the Chinese physicians started regularly using acupuncture to regulate post-operative pains.
The results of using acupuncture for this purpose was so excellent that the physicians wanted to see if using acupuncture during minor operations could help in controlling pain too. In fact, they tried tonsillectomy first without using any anesthsia for the operation.
Once more, they obtained excellent results and, henceforth, the physician started using acupuncture for other minor surgeries, for instance hernia repairs and extraction of tooth.
In due course, the physicians discovered that all patients who were treated with acupuncture for pain relief did not develop an adequate level of anesthsia to permit them to use this ancient therapy as the only means to control pain during a surgery.
However, there were several other patients who tolerated surgery only with the use of acupuncture and no additional anesthesia.
Even to this day, physicians in China regularly undertake several major surgeries in their hospitals only using acupuncture to control or prevent pain.
Without any doubt, using acupuncture for pain control offers several benefits. It helps to avoid all hazards as well as adverse side effects caused by anesthesia brought in by injecting sedative medicines.
France was the first nation in Europe to give due importance to acupuncture. In fact, a French national named Placide Harvieu (1671-1746) is credited with writing one of the first books on acupuncture in Europe.
This book had a wonderful title 'The Secrets of Chinese Medicine and the Perfect Knowledge of Pulse, Brought from China by a Respected Frenchman'.
Immediately after this, Reverend Father Cleyer published one more book on acupuncture in France. However, it seems that Cleyer did not have any intention to appeal to the masses, as he wrote his book in Latin, a language not familiar to most Europeans then.
Over two centuries ago, a Dutch national named Willem ten Rhyne (1649-1700) performed acupuncture on patients in Java. He had also written on the subject of acupuncture.
However, a French physician named Dr. Louis-Joseph Berlioz (1776-1848) was the first European who actually practiced the ancient therapy in the West.
It is unfortunate that Dr. Berlioz's pioneering work is seldom remembered today and people today remember the name Berlioz owing to the physician's renowned son Hector Berlioz, a legendary music composer.
Nevertheless, Dr. Berlioz had published a book titled 'Memoirs on Chronic Complains' in 1816, wherein he devotes a complete chapter to acupuncture and its practice.
Many books on acupuncture were published in France during the subsequent decade and these included 'Dessertation sur l'acupuncture et ses effects therapeutiques written by J. Morand's in 1825, 'Memories sur l'electro-puncture, consideree comme moyen nauveaude traiter efficacement la goutte, les rhumatismes et les affections nerveuses, et sur l'emploi du moxa japonais en France; suivis d'um traite de l'acupuncture et do moxa, principaux movens curatifs chez les peoples de la Chine, de la Coree et du Japon by Jean Baptise Sarlandiere in 1825 as well as Traite de l'acupuncture written by Jules Cloquet in 1826.
London too was not far behind, as James Morss Churchill brought out a book titled 'A treatise on acupuncture' in 1821. In his book, Churchill talked at length on surgical operation, which initially seemed something strange to the Chinese and Japanese.
He also described 'zin-king' which was named by the Chinese and Japanese and, by that time, familiar to the Europeans. These were accompanied by instructions regarding how to perform them as well as incidences exemplifying its success.
Meanwhile, a Bologna-based Italian professor of surgery as well as an exceptional and pioneering surgeon named Francesco Rizzoli (1809-1880) has been practicing acupressure since 1854.
A decade later, an obstetric professor at Edinburgh, Sir James Young Simpson (1811-1870) published a book titled 'Acupressure: A New Method of Arresting Surgical Hemorrhage and of Accelerating the healing of Wounds'.
Many still remember Sir James, as he first used chloroform in delivering babies (midwifery). Nevertheless, in spite of the fact that a number of physicians in the West were actually interested in acupressure and acupuncture and wanted to undertake research on them, write on these topics and, in a few instances, also practice these ancient Chinese therapies, the larger section of people engaged in the medical profession in the West were not that keen.
During the early part of the 20th century, an agent of a French bank in China Georges Soulie de Morant made up his mind to study acupuncture.
On the completion of his study, Morant received an award - the title 'Master Physician'. Morant stayed in China for a long period - 20 years, and finally became the French consul.
During his stay in China, Morant translated many texts on Chinese medicine into French. In addition, he also wrote two books - 'The Synopsis of the True Chinese Acupuncture', which was published in 1934 and the second book titled 'Acupuncture' was published in 1939 in two volumes.
A German naturalist as well as a traveller Engelbert Kaempfer was the first to introduce the theory pertaining to acupuncture in his country during the close of the 17th century.
In his book titled 'History of Japan', Kaempfer wrote two complete chapters on this ancient therapy.
Several new books on the subject of traditional Chinese medicine as well as acupuncture were translated into German following the founding of a research institute on Chinese medicine in Germany in 1906.
It was during this period that Kaempfer's book 'History of Japan' was also translated into English, but it failed to have any influence in Britain.
Several years later, in 1958, a group of physicians from Britain visited Germany to undertake research on the practice of acupuncture. It is possible that a paper published by a London-based physician Dr. Louis Moss in The Lancet stimulated the interest of these British doctors in acupuncture.
In his paper, Dr. Moss noted the findings of using acupuncture to successfully treat roughly 2,000 arthritis patients.
Dr. Moss discovered that treating specific 'trigger points' provided the patients permanent relief from pain caused by arthritis. He observed that many of these trigger points coincided with specific acupuncture points.
Traditional Chinese medicine as well as acupuncture were introduced into the United States and Canada when people from China arrived and settled in America for the first time during the early part of the 19th century.
However, people who migrated from China had a tendency to stick with their own people and, hence, their customs as well as therapies did not spread much among the remaining population.
Nevertheless, they did generate some amount of interest about Chinese medicine among a section of the North Americans and a number of books were also published on this subject as well as acupuncture.
The notable books included Edward Hume's 'The Chinese Way of Medicine', which was published in 1940 and Dr. Ilza Veith's incomplete translation of the Nei Ching, which was published in 1949.
While Dr. Veith did not have any personal knowledge regarding acupuncture when she began working on her book, her proficiency in the Chinese language allowed her to write a very informative and readable translation of Nei Ching, which is undoubtedly an extremely difficult and intricate work on medicine.
